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两极体系下大国战略竞争的演化
2019-11-16 13:37:00

《国际政治科学》2019年第4期

  两极体系下大国战略竞争的演化

  杨原

  国际关系学界对两极体系的理解压倒性地来源于美苏冷战这一个案例,现有理论对更广阔历史时空中两极战略互动的多样性无法做出有效解释。随着中国崛起和中美两极化趋势的突显,两极体系理论需求的迫切性和现有知识的贫乏性之间的矛盾日益突出。本文综合运用演化博弈和案例研究方法,探究了两极体系下两个超级大国战略竞争的演化规律。博弈模型显示,两极体系下的大国战略竞争存在内生性的自我“刹车”机制,当竞争成本与竞争目标价值的比值足够高时,这种“刹车”机制就会发挥作用,促使竞争双方尊重彼此的利益边界,降低双方的对抗程度;反之,战略竞争则会持续或升级。案例研究发现,多种具体因素会影响战略竞争的成本—价值比不断发生变化,从而导致真实世界中的两极竞争过程千差万别,但这些演化过程都遵循本文模型所揭示的演化机制。当今时代战略竞争的成本—价值比比历史上任何时候都要大,这决定了中美竞争将“注定缓和”而不会“注定一战”。

  一、问题的提出

  本文研究的问题是:两极体系下两个超级大国的战略竞争会沿何种路径演化?是会持续对抗,还是对抗不断升级,还是逐渐缓和?是否存在决定两极战略竞争走向的内在规律?

  (一)经验困惑

  国际关系学界对两极体系的现有理解,压倒性地来源于美苏冷战这一个案例。[1]以结构现实主义为代表的现有理论认为,美苏冷战产生的根本原因就是国际实力分布的两极结构。[2]肯尼斯·华尔兹(Kenneth N. Waltz)在《国际政治理论》中译本序言中说:“冷战植根于两极体系,只有在该系统崩溃的时候冷战才能结束。”[3]换言之,苏联解体致使两极结构终结才导致了冷战的结束;[4]只要两极结构存续,超级大国之间的对抗和危机就会持续发生。[5]但事实上,在早于苏联解体的1990年11月,美国总统布什就已经正式宣布:“冷战结束了。”[6]更有观点认为,早在戈尔巴乔夫决定大规模裁军和不介入东欧变革的时候,冷战就已经结束了。[7]按照这种观点,两极结构就不是冷战的充分条件,冷战可以在两极结构依然存在的情况下结束。不管我们如何界定冷战结束的时间节点,美国和苏联的战略竞争最终演化为一种更富合作性的关系却是历史事实。[8]两极结构没变,为什么两个极的关系变了?

  读者可能会说,之所以有这个困惑是因为我们是以结构现实主义为参照,或者是因为美苏冷战比较特殊。可是如果跳出结构现实主义的窠臼和美苏冷战这个孤例,我们对两极体系认识的迷茫感只会更加强烈。对于实力分布与和平稳定之间的关系,均势理论和霸权理论的观点截然相反;[9]在均势理论内部,对于两极结构是否真的有助于维持和平,同样众说纷纭。[10]回顾历史上的其他两极体系,有时两极之间大战频仍且规模不断升级(如罗马与迦太基),有时又能(在没有核武器的情况下)保持一个多世纪的“长和平”(如宋与辽),有时两极关系能够从激烈争斗进化为相对和平(如晋与楚),有时又能从保持现状退化为无限战争(如雅典与斯巴达)。[11]体系结构都一样,体系进程和结果却千差万别。显然,没有哪个现成的理论能够对这些两极体系同时做出解释。但我们仍然想知道,究竟是什么因素和机制,决定着两极体系下两个极的战略互动走向。

  (二)现实关切

  在理论界尚未对两极体系的过程得出真正清晰认识的情况下,随着苏联的解体和美苏两极的结束,学界对这个重要议题的研究迅速归于沉寂。然而,欠下的“功课”终究需要补上。随着中国崛起势头的持续,一个由中美两国定义的新两极体系正扑面而来。[12]中美两国关系会因这次结构变化而向何种方向发展,将是整个21世纪上半叶国际政治的最核心关切。然而令人不安的是,面对如此重大的历史性课题,我们所能借助的理论工具居然仍来自遥远的20世纪,我们最常参考的历史经验居然只是美苏冷战这一个孤例。

  受美苏两极历史的影响,越来越多的学者开始用“战略竞争”来锚定当前的中美关系,[13]中美战略竞争不可避免正在成为战略界的主流看法。[14]“战略竞争”一词在国际关系理论文献中有着特定的内涵,包括三个构成要素:一是有两组成员相对稳定的对手,二是彼此感知到对方的敌意和威胁,三是对彼此未来的冲突性互动有共同的预期。[15]尽管“战略竞争”的精确定义学界还有争论,[16]但它区别于国家间一般性战略互动的一个根本特征是,处于战略竞争中的国家愿意牺牲自己一定程度的繁荣发展以剥夺其对手的可能收益。[17]从这个意义上讲,2018年美国从相对收益出发对中国发动贸易战以抑制中国发展,或可看作中美两国进入战略竞争的一个标志。

  那么,中美战略竞争的前景是怎样的?是会不断升级从而重蹈美苏冷战的覆辙甚而陷入“修昔底德陷阱”?还是有机会走出恶性竞争,实现缓和与合作?要想对这些预测性问题做出可靠的回答,亟需发展和更新两极体系理论。

  (三)两点说明

  1. 为什么研究问题限定在“两极结构”下?

  除了上面提到的现实相关性外,设定这个前提还因为从理论上讲两极体系下大国战略竞争缓和的难度大于多极体系。根据现有研究,当同时面临多个战略竞争对手时,国家会根据对手的威胁大小和相对实力差距做出策略性调整,向次要竞争者做出让步以集中资源应对威胁最紧迫的竞争者。[18]在导致大国战略竞争终止的原因中,除了自身战败或实力衰落外,最主要的因素就是新竞争对手或威胁的出现。[19]而根据两极体系的定义,[20]对于定义两极的那两个超级大国来说,除了对方以外没有其他国家能够对自己构成实质性威胁,这样就不存在这两个国家因为要对付更大的威胁或新威胁而缓和彼此之间关系的情况。排除第三方干扰后,两个超级大国的互动更有可能锁定在彼此冲突、持续对抗的恶性轨道上,而如果在这种不利情况下都存在令两国竞争走向缓和的机制,那么更一般意义上的两极关系就更不存在“注定一战(或冷战)”的宿命了。

  2. 什么是“大国”?

  大国的战略竞争是本文的核心研究对象,因此有必要对“大国”(great power)做出明确的界定。一种常见的对“大国”的理解是将其划分为能够构成体系一极的“超级大国”和“次等大国”(second-ranking greatpowers)两类。[21]还有一种做法是对“大国”作狭义的理解,将其仅指代那些能成为体系一极的国家。[22]本文采用第二种定义,“大国”仅指那些能够成为体系一极的超级大国。本文将不加区分地混用“大国”、“超级大国”、“极”三个术语指代同一类国家。除了“大国”以外的其他国家,尽管其规模和实力存在差异,在本文中均统称为“小国”。

  (四)研究方法和理论发现

  本文综合运用形式模型和实证研究两种方法。形式模型方面,本文借鉴演化主义路径广泛使用的不对称鹰鸽博弈,建立了两极体系下大国战略竞争的演化模型,计算得出不同情况下的演化稳定策略,并用复制者动态模型对演化过程进行动态模拟。实证研究方面,由于可供研究的两极体系数量有限,难以做大样本统计和定性比较分析,又由于各案例历史背景差异很大,无法做严格意义上的受控案例间比较,因此本文选择序贯访谈法(sequential interview)。这种方法既可用于真实的访谈,也可用于案例研究,其核心思路是直接从任意案例入手,寻找该案例所反映的因果关系,然后选择另一个与之前的案例有相似因素的案例,看是否有新的事实被发现,直到考察的内容和结果开始出现重复,由此即可得到关于所研究问题的相对完整的认识。[23]

  本文的模型分析显示,只要竞争的成本与竞争目标的价值两者的比值足够高,无论目标占有方在竞争中获胜的概率有多大,(如果是占有者就选择强硬对抗,如果是争夺者就选择退让)这种相机策略都能成为博弈的演化稳定策略;占有方获胜的概率越高,这种策略成为演化稳定策略的门槛就越低。这意味着,大国战略竞争存在内生性的自我“刹车”机制,当成本—价值比足够高时,这种“刹车”机制就会发挥作用,促使竞争双方尊重彼此现有的权力范围,降低大国间的军事对抗程度。案例研究先后考察了五个两极案例,空间横跨东西方,时间覆盖上古、中古和现代。结果显示,多种具体因素会影响战略竞争的成本—价值比不断发生变化,从而导致真实的两极世界中大国战略竞争的过程千差万别,但不同的演化过程都遵循上述模型所揭示的演化机制。

  …………

  五、结论

  根据定义,战略竞争不是单方面的,而是在互动中进行的。既然是互动,就必然会承受阻力。就像物理世界中摩擦阻力永远不会为零一样,只要开展战略竞争,就必须支付成本。假如两极战略竞争是“一场大战定胜负”的一锤子买卖,那么相对于竞争目标价值的竞争成本对竞争本身所具有的“刹车”作用就很难显现,因为单轮的讨价还价(bargain)总是有可能因信息不对称和承诺问题而陷入缺乏效率的冲突或战争。[24]而如果两极战略竞争是两极长期共存下的多轮博弈,那么上述“刹车”机制就有机会发挥作用,逐渐划分出两极各自的利益边界并形成尊重彼此权力范围的规范。[25]现实情况是,两个超级大国长期共存从而形成两极结构理论上可能,历史上多次出现,当前正在发生。

  在当今这个大国无战争时代,中美两国无疑将长期共存。从这个意义上讲,两极体系路径比权力转移路径更适合被用来作为分析当今及未来中美关系的理论框架。核武器、经济相互依赖及其他显而易见的因素,使得当今时代竞争成本与目标价值比的比值可能比历史上任何时候都要大,这意味着,如果中美竞争存在宿命,那也只会是“注定缓和”,而恰恰不会是“注定一战”。不过,与美苏及历史上其他两极竞争聚焦于地缘和安全领域不同,当前中美竞争的主战场是科技和经贸领域,这些低政治领域的竞争尽管也须支付显著的成本,但毕竟不会立即直接威胁两国的主权、政权和国土安全,因此中美竞争“刹车”效果的显现或许需要更长的时间。

  当前我们对两极体系的认识与20世纪80年代相比没有明显进步,而那个时代以美苏冷战这一个案例为经验基础的两极理论甚至对这个案例本身的解释都很难令所有人信服。[26]面对正在形成的中美两极结构,如果继续以这样样本奇少、漏洞明显的陈旧理论为分析工具,很可能会对我们对中美战略互动的认识及政策制定产生误导。冷战时期的国际关系学者已经为加深人类对当时两极体系的理解贡献了他们的智慧和力量,对于21世纪的新一代学者特别是中国学者而言,面对当今相似而又不同的国际形势,努力扩充两极体系数据、锐意创新两极体系理论,既是责任,也是机遇。

  [1]Ted Hopf, “Polarity,the Offense-Defense Balance, and War,”AmericanPolitical Science Review, Vol. 85, No. 2, 1991, p. 475; R. Harrison Wagner, “What WasBipolarity?” International Organization,Vol.47, No.1, 1993, p.79; DaleC. Copeland, “Neorealism and the Myth of Bipolar Stability: Toward a New DynamicRealist Theory of Major War,”SecurityStudies, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1996, p. 29.

  [2]Marco Cesa, “RealistVisions of the End of the Cold War: Morgenthau, Aron and Waltz,”British Journal of Politics &International Relations, Vol. 11,No. 2, 2009, pp. 177-191; Cameron G.Thies,“The Roles of Bipolarity: A Role Theoretic Understanding of the Effectsof Ideas and Material Factors on the Cold War,”International Studies Perspectives, Vol. 14,No. 3, 2013,pp. 269-288.

  [3]肯尼斯·华尔兹:《国际政治理论》,信强译,苏长和校,上海人民出版社,2003年,序言第19页。

  [4]Gary Goertzand Paul F.Diehl, “Enduring Rivalries: Theoretical Constructs and Empirical Patterns,”International Studies Quarterly, Vol.37, No. 2, 1993, p. 152.

  [5]Kenneth N. Waltz, “The Stability of a BipolarWorld,” Daedalus, Vol.93, No.3, 1964,pp.882-883.

  [6]David Reynolds, “BeyondBipolarity in Space and Time,”DiplomaticHistory, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1992, p. 225.

  [7]Don Oberdorfer, The Turn: From the Cold War to a New Era:The United States and the Soviet Union, 1983-1990 (New York: PoseidonPress, 1991), p. 365; Deborah Welch Larson, “The U.S.-Soviet Rivalry,” in WilliamR. Thompson ed.,Great Power Rivalries(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999), p. 383.

  [8]DeborahWelch Larson, “The U.S.-Soviet Rivalry,”p. 372.

  [9]相关总结和分析参见R. Harrison Wagner, “The Theoryof Games and the Balance of Power,”WorldPolitics, Vol. 38, No. 4, 1986, pp. 546-576; Robert Powell, “Stability andthe Distribution of Power,” WorldPolitics, Vol. 48, No. 2, 1996, pp. 239-267.

  [10]相关梳理参见文献回顾部分。

  [11]相关史实参见案例研究部分。

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  [14] Thomas G. Mahnkin,ed. Competitive Strategies for the 21stCentury: Theory, History, and Practice (Stanford: Stanford UniversityPress, 2012); Adam P. Liff and G. John Ikenberry, “Racing toward Tragedy?China’s Rise, Military Competition in the Asia Pacific, and the SecurityDilemma,” International Security,Vol. 39, No. 2, 2014, pp. 52-91; Lyle Goldstein, Meeting China Halfway: How to Defuse the Emerging US-China Rivalry(Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2015); Thomas J. Wright, All Measures Short of War: the Contest forthe Twenty-first Century and the Future of American Power (New Haven, CT:Yale University Press, 2017); Daniel Burkhart and Alison Woody, “StrategicCompetition: Beyond Peace and War,” JointForce Quarterly, Vol. 86, No. 3, 2017. pp. 20-27; Abraham Denmark, “A NewEra of Intensified U.S.-China Competition,” January 4, 2018, Woodrow WilsonInternational Center for Scholars,http://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/new-era-intensified-us-china-competition;Timothy R. Heath and William R. Thompson, “Avoiding U.S.-China Competition IsFutile: Why the Best Option Is to Manage Strategic Rivalry,” Asia Policy, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2018, pp.91-119; Seng Tan, “Asia’s ‘Tragic’ Return to Great-Power Politics?” Asia Policy, Vol. 13, No. 4, 2018, pp.36-41; Patricia M. Kim, “Managing U.S.-China Relations in an Era of PeerCompetition,” June 20, 2018, the Council of Foreign Relations,https://www.cfr.org/blog/managing-us-china-relations-era-peer-competition;Bruce Jones, “The Era of U.S.-China Cooperation Is Drawing to a Close—WhatComes Next?” January 7, 2019, Brookings Institution,https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2019/01/07/the-era-of-u-s-china-cooperation-is-drawing-to-a-close-what-comes-next/;Satoru Mori, “US-China: A New Consensus for Strategic Competition inWashington,” January 30, 2019, TheDiplomat,https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/us-china-a-new-consensus-for-strategic-competition-in-washington/.

  [15]GaryGoertz and Paul F. Diehl, “Enduring Rivalries: Theoretical Constructs andEmpirical Patterns,” InternationalStudies Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 2, 1993, pp. 154-155; Paul R. Hensel, “AnEvolutionary Approach to the Study of Interstate Rivalry,”Conflict Management and Peace Science, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1999, p.176.

  [16]相关讨论参见Gary Goertzand Paul F.Diehl, “Enduring Rivalries: Theoretical Constructs and Empirical Patterns,”International Studies Quarterly, Vol.37, No. 2, 1993, pp. 147-171; William R. Thompson, “Principal Rivalries,”Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39,No. 2, 1995, pp. 196-203; WilliamR. Thompson, “Identifying Rivals and RivalriesinWorld Politics,”International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 4, 2001,pp. 557-586; Douglas Lemke and William Reed, “War and Rivalry among GreatPowers,”American Journal of PoliticalScience, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2001, p 468; Michael Colaresi and William R.Thompson,“Strategic Rivalries, Protracted Conflict, and Crisis Escalation,”Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 39,No. 3,2002, pp. 264-268.

  [17]Brandon Valeriano,Becoming Rivals: TheProcess of Interstate Rivalry Development (New York: Routledge, 2013), p. 5.

  [18]SedenAkcinaroglu,Elizabeth Radziszewskiand Paul F. Diehl, “The Effects of Rivalry on Rivalry:Accommodation and the Management of Threats,”Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2014, pp. 81–100.

  [19]William R. Thompson, “WhyRivalries Matter and What Great Power Rivalries Can Tell Us about WorldPolitics,” in William R. Thompson ed., GreatPower Rivalries (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999), p.16.

  [20]George Modelski, World Power Concentrations: Typology, Data,Explanatory Framework(Morristown: General Learning Press, 1974), p.2. DavidP. Rapkin, William R. Thompson and Jon A. Christopherson, “Bipolarity andBipolarization in the Cold War Era: Conceptualization, Measurement, andValidation,” The Journal of ConflictResolution, Vol.23, No.2, 1979, pp.261-295. William R. Thompson, “Polarity,the Long Cycle, and Global Power Warfare,” TheJournal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.30, No.4, 1986, pp.587-615.

  [21]参见Randall L. Schweller,“Tripolarity and the Second World War,” InternationalStudies Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 1, 1993, p. 75.RaimoVayrynen, “Introduction,” in RaimoVayrynen ed., The Waning of MajorWar (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 13; Stephen G. Brooks andWilliam C. Wohlforth, World out ofBalance:International Relations and the Challenge of American Primacy (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2008), p. 29.

  [22]例如肯尼斯·华尔兹:《国际政治理论》,信强译,苏长和校,上海人民出版社,2003年,第218—219页。

  [23]Robert K. Yin, Case Study Research:Design and Methods (4th edition) (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2008); Mario L.Small, “‘HowMany Cases Do I Need?’ On Science and the Logic of Case Selection in FieldBased Research,” Ethnography, Vol.10, No. 1, 2009, pp. 5-38.

  [24]James D. Fearon, “RationalExplanation of War,”InternationalOrganization, Vol. 49, No. 3, 1995, pp. 379-414.

  [25]事实上,近代领土和主权规范的产生源于类似的演化机制,参见Shiping Tang, TheSocial Evolution of International Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2013), pp. 106-107; Dominic D.P. Johnson and Monica Duffy Toft, “Grounds forWar: The Evolution of Territorial Conflict,”InternationalSecurity, Vol. 38, No. 3, 2013/2014, pp.7-38.

  [26]Richard Ned Lebow, “TheLong Peace, the End of the Cold War, and the Failure of Realism,”International Organization, Vol. 48, No.2, 1994, pp. 249-277; Dale C. Copeland, “Neorealism and the Myth of Bipolar Stability:Toward a New Dynamic Realist Theory of Major War,”Security Studies, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1996, pp. 29-89.

  (原文发表在《国际政治科学》2019年第4期,第1—54页。本号有删节。)